Tweeting Disaster: Hashtag Constructions and Collisions.

Tweeting Disaster: Hashtag Constructions and Collisions Liza Potts Joyce Seitzinger CeME Lab Eastern Institute of Technology Old Dominion University Napier, New Zealand Norfolk, Virginia U.S.A [email protected] [email protected] Dave Jones Angela Harrison CeME Lab CeME Lab Old Dominion University Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia U.S.A Norfolk, Virginia U.S.A [email protected] [email protected] ABSTRACT distribution of information through twitter is discussed. In the In this paper, we describe the issues surrounding the use of cases reviewed here, hashtag usage was somewhat mired by various hashtags by Twitter users who are attempting to exchange inconsistent formats, spellings, and word ordering. This paper information about recent natural disasters. During these disasters, calls for systems that can help bridge this issue by creating hashtag usage was somewhat mired by inconsistent formats, participant-centered data streams that can collect and re-route spellings, and word ordering. This paper argues for systems that these conversations. can help bridge this issue by creating participant-centered data streams that can collect and re-route these conversations. 2. DEFINING HASHTAGS Twitter content is largely public. Unless a Twitter participant has Categories and Subject Descriptors protected his or her account, updates posted to Twitter are H.5.2 [Information Interfaces and Presentation]: User publicly visible. Because Twitter content is public, participants Interfaces—Interaction styles, User-centered design. have used the service in numerous contexts to communicate and distribute information quickly [23]. Police departments use the service as a way to notify citizens of recent crimes, raise General Terms awareness of events hosted by the police department, or to Design, Human Factors, Standardization publicize achievements by the department or its members [10]. Twitter has proven a popular tool to facilitate both public and Keywords “backchannel” communication during events, such as academic Social Web, Social Media, Twitter, Communication Design, conferences [15, 16]. In other cases, Twitter has been used as a Information Design, Information Architecture, Hashtags, communication tool in the workplace [27, 35]. Journalists use Disasters Twitter to publicize news stories or post quick newsworthy notices for followers, raising questions about the service’s role in journalism and news media [5]. And Twitter has proven an 1. INTRODUCTION extremely useful crisis communications tool in response to In the past few years, the information network Twitter has been various natural and human-made disasters [20, 36]. used as a communication tool during times of disasters. As a tool for participants, Twitter has allowed people to share information and redistribute knowledge across countries, time zones, and 2.1 About Twitter cultures [20]. In doing so, participants are working to locate data Twitter participants post updates, called tweets, which are limited and validate information about these events. Such details about to 140 characters. Any Twitter participant can follow the tweets the disaster zone, missing persons, and possible hijackings have of any other participant. And because tweets are public, they are been shared across this network. also searchable using either Twitter’s own search feature or the search function of numerous third-party applications that connect For many reasons, not the least of which is an attempt at through Twitter’s application programming interface (API) [12]. organizing content, participants use hashtags to communicate Participants see the updates of any other participant they are within the Twitter stream. In this paper, issues concerning the following, and their updates are visible to any of their followers. A post on Twitter’s blog claims that participants “now send more than 140 million Tweets a day” [29]. All tweets are displayed on Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for a “timeline,” which Twitter describes as a “a collected stream of personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are Tweets listed in real-time order” [31]. not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy Participants use several different tools to direct tweets at other otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, participants, or to direct tweets to specific aggregations of tweets. requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Participants can respond to other participants by using a text SIGDOC’11, October 3–5, 2011, Pisa, Italy. command called an “@reply” (pronounced at-reply). The text Copyright 2011 ACM 978-1-4503-0936-3/11/10...$10.00. command includes the recipient’s username preceded by the @ 235 symbol. These commands appear as “@username,” and once they the terror attacks, turned to numerous social web tools to are sent they appear in the recipient’s “mentions” timeline. If chronicle their experiences, including Flickr. Flickr is a photo- participants look at their mentions timelines, all tweets directed at sharing site that allows participants to tag uploaded photos, them using an @reply are visible, even from participants they creating a folksonomy intended to catalogue similar photos into may not follow. The mentions timeline also displays “retweets,” groups from across the site. However, in many cases tags were which occur when one participant republishes another’s tweet by inconsistent. Single participants would inconsistently vary posting it to his or her own timeline. Retweets are created using between tags such as “bomb,” “bombs,” and “bombing” in order an “RT @username” text command. Retweets can be published to describe the images they were uploading. In addition, the terms by either copying the original tweet exactly as is, or by copying it “blast” and “blasts” became popular tags for content related to and then adding a modification to it, such as a comment, a link, or this disaster [19]. The lack of consistency in tags in these spaces an additional information. As long as the total number of becomes a problem with making such content more easily characters in the tweet do not exceed 140, any text-based content searchable and findable across the site itself, as well searchable can be transmitted, including links to other sites or links to digital and findable across the broader social web. images and videos collected on services such as Flickr, Twitpic, Similar problems mark the use of hashtags in Twitter. In some or YouTube (digital photo- and video-sharing services). instances, a hashtag’s widespread usage and ability to draw large audiences has lead its exploitation by spammers advertising 2.2 Hashtag Use websites, or even companies advertising products to participants Hashtags are another tool used by Twitter participants. These tags tweeting about the Iran Elections crisis of 2009 [36]. In other emerged as a convention invented by Twitter participants as a cases, a problem similar to that of the London Bombings and way to tag tweets [30]. They are tags added to tweets and Flickr occurs. Hashtags related to the same event or discursive preceded by the # symbol, so that they appear as “#tag.” By context proliferate, creating potential problems in maintaining searching Twitter content using Twitter’s search feature or that of “sustainable” communication contexts [16], or leading to issues in a third-party application, hashtagged tweets can be viewed in a finding relevant and necessary Twitter-based content [12, 23]. So, separate timeline that displays them as a chronologically while hashtags possess enormous potential as folksonomic tools organized aggregation. This aggregation is updated in real-time, for distributing information in contextually-aware ways, displaying new tweets in which participants have attached the participants also encounter issues in these information streams. necessary hashtag. Though hashtags were first created and used The volume of content moving through a particular hashtag by Twitter participants, the site has since more robustly integrated timeline can become overwhelming, and the participants must hashtags into the Twitter experience by making them hyperlinks. often sort through large amounts of social media content in order Clicking on a hashtag will automatically take participants to the to identify legitimate information that is relevant to them and the timeline for the tag, showing them the aggregation of tweets using contexts in which they are communicating [21, 23]. that tag. Hashtags are a form of social tagging, or “folksonomy” [17, 18, 2.3 Twitter’s Search 32]. Folksonomies are “ad hoc labeling and tagging systems” Twitter’s approach to making the site’s content searchable is used in “a social environment” where multiple people can use the unfortunately inadequate. The site uses a dedicated search page to tag [32]. Folksonomies such as hashtags connect bits of allow participants to find Twitter-based content. The site does information based on the ways social participants understand and support Boolean operators on the main search page. And using use that information, rather than the way it would imposed on a Twitter’s advanced search page, participants can search for space by an information architect. These are bottom-up systems, keywords, hashtags, user accounts, full phrases, tweets that derived from the keywords used by participants and online contain links, or even filter search results by “attitude,” which communities. Tags are supposed to “weave a disparate collection will search for tweets with either happy or sad emoticons. Search of objects together” [17]. They can further be viewed as a form of results are returned in reverse chronological order, showing the knowledge work emerging from the writing performed by most recent tweets first and proceeding towards the oldest tweets. collectives of participants within specific social contexts. Writing Due to these limitations, Twitter participants can encounter makes knowledge work visible [9], and folksonomies such as problems in finding relevant or much needed content. Specific hashtags make the collective knowledge work of social web tweets can be extremely difficult to find in timelines indexing participants visible by leveraging the mobility of content [23]. popular or widely used hashtags. In other cases, older tweets may Due to their potential as folksonomies, hashtags have been the not be visible at all. This problem is compounded by recent subject of numerous scholarly studies. McNely studies the ways decisions by Twitter to shut down tools that might facilitate the an organization attempted to establish conventions for using mining of Twitter streams for data, including the popular Twitter hashtags during an academic conference, only to see archiving platform Twapperkeeper [8]. This lack of access creates conference attendees using Twitter reject the organization’s plan major problems finding content. In addition, if multiple hashtags and establish their own folksonomy [16]. Potts traces the ways are used to respond to the same event, participants may be hashtags were used as “a major conduit through which searching multiple hashtag timelines, creating a number of participants shared information” about the Mumbai Terror usability problems for participants trying to manage information Attacks of 2008 [20]. [12, 23]. Yet, because folksonomies emerge from use by participants within the social web, several problems can occur, as well. 3. RECENT DISASTERS Previous research by Potts points to other folksonomies and their Recent disasters demonstrate the utility of services such as uses in response to crisis situations [19, 21]. During the London Twitter as communication platforms while also highlighting the Bombings of 2005, social web participants, including victims of problems participants encounter when using such systems to find, 236 organize, and distribute information. New Zealand suffered two major earthquakes in less than a year—September 2010 and February 2011. Both events saw widespread use of Twitter and hashtags to distribute information to victims seeking assistance in their wake. The March 2011 earthquake and tsunami that struck Japan also saw victims, families, and many others turn to Twitter and other social media platforms for many of the same reasons. All these events saw similar issues: proliferation of hashtags that did not cross-pollinate and a lack of usability in the tools necessary for managing massive amounts of streaming information for participants who needed it. The tweets discussed in this section were collected using the Figure 1. A tweet from @kalena indicating the reliance on archiving service TwapperKeeper.com. In the case of the Japan Twitter for information after the 2010 New Zealand disaster, some tweets were found through online news services earthquake. From http://twitter.com/#!/kalena/status/ that used other systems, such as Storify.com, in order to collect 22909823819. tweets during the event. Many of these tweets were also captured within Twitter itself. Since many media outlets and government agencies responded to 3.1 New Zealand the earthquake more slowly than many social web participants, On 4 September 2010 at 4:35 in the morning, the Canterbury hashtags for the crisis were chosen by the first Twitter region of New Zealand was rocked by a magnitude 7.1 earthquake participants [7]. There were no human casualties but the level of destruction on the scene, or those participants who turned to their Twitter was massive, estimated at 3 billion New Zealand dollars, streams for information, whether they were in Christchurch or including the damage caused by aftershocks [2]. This disaster was somewhere else around the world. It also meant that these tags the first major crisis in New Zealand since the advent of social were instigated and spread in a networked manner rather than media. With telephones lines destroyed and no electricity, each dictated by major nodes such as might happen in the case of smartphone or laptop became a communication hub while its scheduled events, like conferences or royal weddings. battery lasted. How did this fledgling community manage its choice of a After the 2011 New Zealand quake, the All Hazards disaster blog common hashtag? Immediately after the earthquake, Twitter posted a brief summary of the event followed by some phone “exploded with tweets mentioning ‘new zealand’, ‘earthquake’ numbers, and a list of Twitter hashtags that included #eqnz and and ‘christchurch’. And pretty soon the first hashtags started #chch. Also listed was an #eqnzcontact hashtag that was to be forming: #earthquake, #quakenz, #nzquake, #nz, #christchurch used for finding missing relatives [33]. Aside from suggested and combinations of these. And of course there was the inevitable hashtags, the post included instructions and examples of how to question after Indonesia, would there be a #tsunami? By around tweet and provided links to Twitter posts that were near 5am one hashtag began emerging: #eqnz” [25] (see Figure 2). Christchurch. One blogger who identified himself as living about 200 miles from Christchurch posted about his experiences trying to get information on the disaster. He stated that he discovered the event via Twitter and that most of the tweets he saw were from local media sites such as TV, newspaper, and radio. He also highlighted which hashtags were being used, which included #eqnz and #eqnzcontact [1]. As shown to commonly be the case in prior research on disasters and social media [19, 20, 21], the information for the September 2010 New Zealand quake was coming from Twitter and other social media, not from major media outlets. The information participants distributed via Twitter also included commentary that varied from the appropriateness of what was being broadcast to outright frustration with media outlets and government agencies. Figure 2. @adzebill tweeting regarding the #eqnz hashtag. At 6:48am @radiowammo tweeted: “Oh. So Radio NZ is playing From http://twitter.com/#!/adzebill/status/22905414859. 'Good Vibrations' by the Beach Boys. ummm. huh. #eqnz”. And at 6:49am, more than 2 hours after the earthquake, @glynnfoster tweeted, “You think it might make sense to get someone from the Hashtags are the primary way to effectively pool information in a national defense crisis center on the airwaves? (like now) #eqnz Twitter conversation. Pooling of information was essential for #radionz #fail”. He was not the only Twitter participant airing those seeking assistance, shelter, or loved ones. Rapidly, frustrations concerning media and government responses. The experienced Twitter participants began guiding other participants media and the governmental agencies were slow to react with to the common hashtag #eqnz, when at 5:17am @adzebill posted: relevant and needed information, particularly when compared “#earthquake Apparently the official hashtag is #eqnz; with the instantaneous ground reports from Twitter (see Figure 1). #doingitwrong. Glad someone's got priorities sorted.” @tristamsparks said, “thanks megan! RT @harvestbird Try tag #eqnz. Power out in much of Chch, water mains damaged. 237 #nzquake.” And some participants used gentle admonishment as tweet for necessary information. It was also descriptive while at 6:16am @morealtitude: “@louis_press Note ur tweeting on being concise, using “eq” to reference earthquake and “nz” to Christchurch earthquake, fyi official hashtag = #eqnz (not sure specify its location in New Zealand at a time when it was not who makes it 'official', but...).” Comparing the usage of several quite clear where exactly the epicenter of the quake was located. commonly used hashtags to date shows #eqnz emerged as the The combination of brevity and descriptiveness helped clear favorite (see Figure 3). participants remember the tag and its meaning more easily. It was quick to type, especially on mobile devices. 3.2 Japan On 11 March 2011, an earthquake with an 8.9 magnitude struck Japan. The quake has been documented as the fifth largest worldwide and 8,000 times stronger than the quake that hit New Zealand [3]. The quake spawned a tsunami that hit northern Japan and swept away houses, buildings, cars, and boats. Also affected were a number of nuclear plants that brought forth fears of a meltdown in the days after the quake. Twitter is credited as one of the main sites of communication following the disasters, used by both individuals and organizations alike [4]. Participation on Twitter, always high in Japan, hit a frenetic pace after the initial quake. One blogger noted that the number of tweets coming from Tokyo reached about 1,200 tweets per minute less than an hour after the quake struck [28]. Since the quake Figure 3. Comparing the use of #eqnz to other hashtags. knocked out phone lines and television feeds, many turned to their mobile devices in order to send information. [4, 34]. #Japan and #earthquake emerged as the most prominent hashtags, followed Further analysis also shows that the hashtags most commonly by ones like #prayforjapan, #japanquake and #tsunami [4, 6]. One used in combination with #eqnz were chch, nz, christchurch, fb, tweet, sent from the account of the United States ambassador to shareanidea, eqnzpositives, tedxeqchch, cera, earthquake. This Japan, John Roos (@AmbassadorRoos), gave information on how demonstrates Twitter participants using combinations to talk to find missing loved ones: If you have friends or loved ones in about #eqnz related topics. However, many of these hashtags #Japan that you've been unable to reach, email were used either infrequently or quickly fell out of use. For [email protected].” [13]. Here, @AmbassadorRoos instance, @harvestbird uses the “Chch” abbreviation, but does not used the #Japan hashtag to make sure that his information would include the # symbol needed to make it a functional hashtag. receive maximum viewing. The information shared included what An example of a hashtag that fell into disuse by many participants was going on, inquiries of friends and family, what places were was #christchurchquake. It was first used around 6 am [25]. By affected, and where to go in the event of an emergency [4]. 10:30am its lack of popularity was evident, as @stevevoisey In another example, a photographer for the American newspaper tweeted, “Lol ‘@catspyjamasnz: update 6 hrs in: #eqnz tweets USA Today traveled to Japan following the crisis and tweeted 2936 v #christchurchquake tweets: 330 about his experiences. His tweets included crucial information, #incrisisdonotgoforlongesthashtagever’.” Why did the such as gas shortages and food rationing, as well as more positive #christchurchquake hashtag fail? It is difficult to assess the events such as reconstruction [14]. However, he did not use reasons for the choices of online communities. And the research hashtags in any of his tweets, suggesting that those who needed it presented here examines the technical and social constraints of most may not have easily found his critical information. Other technologies available to those responding in the immediate participants shared practical, learned information. For example, aftermath of a crisis. one tweeter passed on information he learned about radiation and To this end, some practical difficulties are evident with the public baths [34]. However, like the previous example, there is no #christchurchquake hashtag [25]. At 18 characters, it was too mention of hashtags, thus it is hard to ascertain how much the long. The tag took up a substantial portion the 140 characters information spread. What both examples suggest is that though Twitter allows for every tweet. Even #ccquake would have been helpful, hashtag use is not always common among participants better. This also meant that the hashtag could take longer to type, closest to events such as the Japan earthquake and tsunami. a significant usability hurdle for a participant using a mobile In other cases, participants quickly and efficiently banded phone to access Twitter. The hahstag also emerged after other together in order to push updates and information through Twitter tags were already established. and other social media services. Hashtags were established fairly On the other hand, the #eqnz hashtag quickly gathered a quickly in both English and Japanese among many of these following and prevailed not only in the aftermath of the 2010 participants. However, as discussed earlier, there is a fair amount quake, but also returned during the 2011 event that struck the of misuse and misinformation that makes its way into tweet same area of New Zealand. But why did the #eqnz hashtag streams [36]. In the case of Japan, there were a few rumors that prevail? Just as practical difficulties appear with the made their way into the various hashtag streams, including one #christchurchquake hashtag, the shorter #eqnz hashtag reveals about the possibility of toxic rain following a refinery fire near several key benefits for participants using Twitter to communicate Tokyo [11]. One blogger collected the rumors on Twitter and and organize information [26]. It was short, using only 5 posted them onto his site, including good practices for retweeting characters of the 140 characters allotted. This left more room in a information [24]. The list of some rumors that were found on 238 Twitter included the toxic rain, looting by foreigners, conspiracy 4.2 Systems theories, deaths of famous people (example: “The creator of To support these folksonomies, systems for managing massive Pokémon died today in the #tsunami, #Japan. RIP: Satoshi Tajiri. information streams, such as those that form around hashtags in #prayforjapan"), requests to distribute relief supplies, and, like Twitter, we must present useful and usable information the New Zealand quake, misleading information about donations management and data visualization options for participants. [24]. Third-party applications that access social media services through APIs already provide some suggestions for how to do this [12]. 4. CALL TO ACTION However, stronger research and design is needed to build systems The inefficiencies in Twitter use in these two crises can be that can flexibly find and adapt to the changes in conventions and attributed to two factors. One is a human factor and the other is a usage among participants. Communication researchers and technical factor. First, inexperience on the part of Twitter designers must support those participants who step forward as participants with the service’s hashtag features is combined with a moderators that find, sort, and distribute information. Systems lack of experience with the ways hashtags can be used by must leverage the language of categorization that participants different Twitter-based communities. This resulted in the create, not impose categories on them that may be difficult to proliferation of multiple hashtags of widely varying lengths and understand, lack necessary context, or potentially create cross- ability to effectively contextualize information. Second, cultural issues among participants. By allowing folksonomies to participants faced inadequate systems and tools to easily detect play well with taxonomies, we can help build support structures patterns in tweets and the information they contained. 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